Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices

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Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices
Dissertation
Dissertation

The Tathāgatagarbha theory, also known as the Buddha-nature theory, is one of the most influential Mahāyāna doctrines in the East Asian Buddhism. In 1989, it was severely criticized by some Japanese scholars, namely, Shiro Matsumoto and Noriaki Hakamaya, for being contradictory to the Buddha's teaching of non-self (anātman) and accused of being a non-Buddhist theory in disguise. The purpose of this study is to refute such an accusation and to demonstrate the relationship between this theory and the Bodhisattva practices which are the very core of the Mahāyāna Buddhism.
      This dissertation begins with definitions of the term "tathāgatagarbha" and some of its synonyms which are followed by a brief review of the historical development of the Tathāgatagarbha theory from India to China. With these as the background knowledge, it is easier to point out the fallacies of the two Japanese scholars' criticism on this theory. A key issue in their criticism is that they viewed the Tathāgatagarbha theory as the ātman of the Upaniṣads in disguise. It is therefore necessary to discuss not only the distinction between the ātman mentioned in the Tathāgatagarbha theory and that in the Upaniṣads but also the controversy over the issue of ātman versus anātman among the Buddhist scholars.
      In the discussion to clarify the issue of ātman in the Tathāgatagarbha theory, it is demonstrated that the ātman in the Tathāgatagarbha theory is not only uncontradictory to the doctrine of anātman in Buddhism but very important to the Bodhisattva practices in the Mahāyāna Buddhism. It functions as a unity for the Bodhisattvas to voluntarily return to the world of saṃsāra again and again. Furthermore, the purport of the entire theory, that all sentient beings are endowed with the essence of the Buddha, supports various Bodhisattva practices such as the aspiration to save all beings in the world, the six perfections, etc. In a word, the Tathāgatagarbha theory is an excellent representative of the soteriology of the Mahāyāna Buddhism. Included in the end of this dissertation is an annotated translation of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra. (Source Accessed May 26, 2020)

Citation Chen, Shu-hui Jennifer. "Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices." PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1998.


  • Introduction1

  • Chapter One: The Term Tathāgatagarbha and Some of Its Synonyms8
  • Chapter Two: The Development of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in India (1)
    —The Earlier Period
    74
    • 1. Sūtras:77
    • 2. Śāstras:115
    • 3. A Chart of the Chronological Order of these Works130

  • Chapter Three: The Development of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in India (2)
    —The Later Period
    131
    • 1. Sūtras:143
    • 2. Śāstras:160
      • A. The Buddha Nature Treatise160
      • B. Mahāyānaśraddhotpāda-śāstra167

  • Chapter Four: The Development of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in China173
    • 1. The Place of the Tathāgatagarbha theory in Different Kinds of P'an-chiao Systems174
    • 2. The Influence of the MPN in Chinese Buddhism181
      • A. The Issue of the Icchantikas181
      • B. Different Kinds of Buddha Nature184
      • C. The Direct Cause of Buddha Nature195
    • 3. The Buddha Nature in Some Chinese Buddhist Schools213
      • A. The Nieh-p'an School213
      • B. The T'ien-t'ai School219
      • C. The Hua-yen School225
      • D. The Ch'an School230

  • Chapter Five: Refutation of Matsumoto's and Hakamaya's Criticism on the Tathāgatagarbha Theory241
    • 1. Fallacies Shared by Matsumoto and Hakamaya242
      • A. The Issue of Time versus Space243
      • B. The Issue of Unity versus Diversity247
      • C. The Issue of Permanence versus Impermanence250
    • 2. Extreme Views of Matsumoto's Criticism252
      • A. On the Concepts of Vimukti and Nirvāṇa252
      • B. On the Concept of Dharmakāya256
    • 3. Misconceptions of Hakamaya's Criticism261
      • A. On the Authoritarianism and the Lack of Real Altruism in the
        Theory of Fundamental Enlightenment
        263
      • B. On the Anti-religious Faith in the Theory of Fundamental
        Enlightenment
        270

  • Chapter Six: A Comparison between the "Ātman" in the Tathāgatagarbha
    theory and That in the Upaniṣads
    277
    • 1. The "Ātman" in the Upaniṣads277
    • 2. Comparison of the Concept of Ātman in the Tathāgatagarbha Theory
      with That in the Upaniṣads
      303
      • A. Downward versus Upward303
      • B. Unitary Brahman versus Myriads of Buddhas307
      • C. Knowledge Leading to the Oneness with the Ātman/Brahman
        versus the Great Compassion for the Salvation of All
        315

  • Chapter Seven: The Purpose of Postulating the Concept of Ātmapāramitā in
    the Tathāgatagarbha Theory
    329
    • 1. Controversy over the Concept of Anātman Depicted in the Early
      Canons
      330
      • A. The Doctrine of Anātman—the Negative Attitude towards the Idea
        of Ātman
        330
      • B. Having the Self for an Island—the Positive Attitude towards the
        Idea of Ātman
        335
      • C. The Silence of the Buddha—the Neutral Attitude towards the Idea
        of Ātman
        339
      • D. The Controversy over the Issue of Ātman versus Anātman in
        Buddhism
        345
        • (I)Those Who Maintain That There Is Absolutely No Self or Soul
          and Their Theories of Karman and Transmigration
          346
        • (II) The Other Side of the Controversy356
    • 2. The Absolute in the Mādhyamika and Yogācāra Schools366
      • A. The Concept of Anātman and the Absolute in the Mādhyamika
        School
        367
        • (I) The Concept of Anātman367
        • (II) Is the Supreme Truth the Absolute in the Mādhyamika
          Theory?
          375
      • B. The Concept of Ālayavijñāna and the Absolute in the Yogācāra
        School
        381
    • 3. The Purpose of Postulating the Concept of Ātmapāramitā in the Tathāgatagarbha Theory395

  • Chapter Eight: The Tathāgatagarbha Theory as a Support to the Bodhisattva
    Practices
    406
  • Conclusion450
  • Appendix A: Translation of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra454
    • I. Introductory Remarks454
    • II. The Translation457
      • Introduction457
      • Parable of the Metamorphosed Buddhas inside Lotuses464
      • Parable of the Honey Guarded by Countless Bees468
      • Parable of the Grain inside Husks470
      • Parable of the Gold in Impurities472
      • Parable of the Treasure under the Ground475
      • Parable of the Seed inside a Fruit478
      • Parable of the Golden Statue Wrapped in Rags480
      • Parable of the Embryo of Cakravartin in the Womb of a Poor
        Woman
        484
      • Parable of the Golden Image inside the Earthen Mold487
      • Merits of Recitation of This Sūtra490
      • The Jātaka Story of Bodhisattva Aparyantaprabha494
      • Conclusion503
  • Appendix B: Glossary of Selected Technical Terms504
    • I. Sanskrit-English504
    • II. Chinese-English506
    • Ill. Japanese-English509
  • Bibliography511